Revolution in Action: A Look at the War, Diplomacy, the People, and the Peace

The purpose of this webpage is not to memorize the specifics of battles or many names of battles. The purpose is to look at the patterns in the revolution, including the war, and the only way to look at patterns is to be able compare the evidence—in this case, to scan the pattern.

We will be looking at these topics within this webpage:

§ Essential Terms for This Webpage

§ Summary: War, Diplomacy, the People, and the Peace

Essential Terms and Concepts for This Webpage

War and battles inherently result in many details, and, although those details matter, most of those details are beyond the scope of an introductory United States History course. These terms and concepts are ones that everyone should know:

§ What are the battles of Saratoga and Yorktown and their significance in the creation of the American nation

§ What are the roles of George Washington and Benjamin Franklin in the Revolutionary War and the peace, as well as John Adams and John Jay

§ What is the significance of foreign volunteers (such as Marquis de Lafayette and Baron von Steuben), of foreign mercenaries (Hessians), and of foreign aid and direct combatants and equipment, both secret and public (such as aid from France, Spain, and the Netherlands)

§ Who the Loyalists (sometimes called Tories) were, what they did in the Revolutionary War, and what happened to them after the war

§ What happened to slaves in and after the Revolutionary War (a war defined by the Declaration of Independence and its statement that all were “created equal,” including what happened to the slaves recruited by the British to fight the Patriots (sometimes called Whigs) in return for their emancipation from slavery

§ What made it possible for the Patriots to win this most unlikely contest with the power that had in 1763 won a global war for empire against the French (the Seven Years’ War or, as it was known in the colonies, the French and Indian War), including our use of guerrilla warfare and of unorthodox battle tactics

§ What were the strengths and weakness of the Patriots and the British

§ What was the government under the Articles of Confederation and how did that form of government have a consequence on the Revolutionary War
The Articles of Confederation were the laws of government (the agreement among the states) under which the revolutionary Congress and the military had their authority to act. That these revolutionaries declared the laws under which they would operate and that the states eventually voted for these laws were necessary actions to move this events from being a coup to the formation of a nation. The government was at this stage a confederation. (Tip: If you do not know what a confederation is, look it up. It will explain much of what you see in the matrix below.)

§ Basic terms of the Treaty of 1783 and why it was initially settled as a separate peace with Britain and not our ally France

Summary: War, Diplomacy, the People, and the Peace

The information in this topic lets you look at the pattern of the Revolutionary War so that you can see the interconnections between the war, diplomacy, what happens to people and how the peace is resolved and so you can compare the vulnerabilities and strengths of each side.

The information uses current abbreviations for states to identify the equivalent colony; for example, MA is used for Massachusetts. These specific abbreviations are used: Br.= British; Pat. = Patriot.

Beginning from the left, the column headings are:

§ Column 1¾When?¾The year and month of the event

§ Columns 2-6¾Participants if the event is a military one (with the X in a column showing the participants in the battle). The red line separates the participants on the British or at least anti-Patriot side and the Patriot side. The Hessians were the British-paid mercenary soldiers from the German province of Hessia; the Indians were tribes (identified in the Where?/Who? column) who fought the Patriots (sometimes called Whigs); the Loyalists (sometimes called Tories) were colonists who fought for the British. The Patriots were colonists who fought for independence from Britain; France was the major ally who fought for the new nation.

§ Column 7¾Where?/Who?¾The location, including the specific city or battle name, and provides the name(s) and background on who was involved in the event

§ Columns 8-9¾Whether the number of the casualties was High (H) or Moderate (M), a factor in how long combatants will persist in war. In most cases the number of casualties is from the Encyclopedia of American History, 7^th edition. That source also provides details about battles and other events.

§ Column 10¾What?¾Brief statement of what occurred

§ Column 11¾Whether the battle was one marked by unorthodox or unexpected battle methods, a factor in whether a side with limited resources has a chance of winning

§ Column 12¾If the event is a military one, its significance in the larger war; if the event is not military, a brief description of the event.

§ Columns 13-14¾The victor (with the X in the column showing who won and with an X in each column indicating a tie or an uncertain outcome and a ? showing an uncertain outcome)

Tips on how to use this tool:
Scan down the columns 2-6. Who is involved when we start to win?

Read the rows where Loyalists are involved: what is going on?

Scan down the columns 8-9 (on casualties) and column 11. What is the Patriot’s strategy?

If Military Event 4 When? 6	H e s s i a n s	I n d i a n s	B r i t i s h	L o y a l i s t s	P a t r i o t s	F r e n c h	Casualty Status 4 Where?/Who? 6	B r i t i s h	P a t r i o t s	Type 4 What? 6	U n o r t h o d o x ?	Victor 4 Significance OR General Event 6	B r i t i s h	P a t r i o t s
1775-04			X		X		MA: Lexington, Concord; Br. Gen. Thomas Gage	H[1]	M	1,000 men to take supply of gunpowder; 70 at Lexington; snipers on return from Concord to Boston	Y	Pre-declaration-of-war battle with farmers, with militia or citizen-soldiers [Question: What are the vulnerabilities and weaknesses in a war waged by a military against citizens rising up to defend their homes?] [Question: Scan down the Orthodox? Column. How frequently is unexpected fighting (unorthodox to Br.) an issue in Pat. victory?]	X	?
1775-05			X		X		NY: Ft. Ticonderoga Pat. Ethan Allen (of Vermont)			Successful surprise attack.	Y	Take 42 Br. cannon to Boston overland (See 1776-03.)		X
1775-05							¾			¾		2^nd Continental Congress meets, sends address to Canada to join (see 1775-12)	-	-
1775-06							¾			¾		Washington Commander in Chief [Question: Scan down this column and the Where?/Who? column. How frequently does Washington play a pivotal role both in terms of his persistence militarily and his personal integrity and influence?]	-	-
1775-06			X		X		MA: Boston: Bunker Hill (Breed’s Hill)	H[2]	H	Battle as part of a siege			X
1775-07							¾			¾		2^nd Continental Congress sends Olive Branch Petition to George III asking for resolution. [Question: An olive branch is a symbol of peace. What does that title tell you about the formal position of the Congress in 1775?]	-	-
1775-12			X		X		VA: Br. governor – martial law, slave and Loyalist recruitment. VA: Great Bridge			Raised a slave regiment (promise of freedom).[3] Br. defeated by Virginians, North Carolinians		Obviously led to planter class concerns [Question: If the Southerners might have a stronger commitment to the Br. (as the Br. expected--or hoped), then how will the planter class and those concerned about a former slave population set free among them feel about Br. attempts to recruit slaves to fight the Pat. in return for freedom? Is that a smart move for the Br. to make if they want Southern support?]		X
1775-12 (lengthy)			X		X		Canada: Quebec Pat. Benedict Arnold/Richard Montgomery		H[4]			Blocks Pat. hopes of Canadian support (see 1775-05)	X
1776 (summer)		X			X		NC/SC/VA Cherokee (Chief Dragging Canoe) v. Pat. militias					Cherokees flee; those remaining make a treaty. [Question: The Indians who joined the Br. or who just took the opportunity of the Revolutionary War to fight the colonists were not able to block the colonists. Scan down the 3^rd column to see Xs for Indian involvement. Notice how brutal some of these engagements are, especially in 1778. How will the colonists/Pat. feel about the Indians and about the Br. for allying with them?]
1776-01							¾			¾		Common Sense published [Also covered in the other webpage for this chapter.]	-	-
1776-02				X	X		NC: Moore’s Creek Bridge (also failure at Charleston)			“Crushed” the Loyalists		Blocks Br. hopes for Loyalist support in a Southern campaign for next 2 years. [Question: Scan down the 5^th column to see Xs for Loyalist involvement. The fight between Loyalists and Pat. is different from a fight between Br. soldiers and Pat.: it brings on the divisions inherent in a civil war – a war between groups formerly together. Notice what happens with the Loyalists by 1783.]		X
1776-03			X		X		MA: Boston, after continued siege of the Br.			Ft. Ticonderoga cannons arrive (overland) (See 1775-05.)		Br. evacuate Boston to Halifax, Nova Scotia		?
1776-05							¾			¾		French secretly give munitions to Pat.–Ex: 80% of gunpowder 1776-77 [Question: Why is France helping the Pat.? Remember their defeat in 1763 in the French and Indian War and their earlier wars? Remember also the old line “The enemy of my enemy is my friend.”]	-	-
1776-07							¾			¾		2^nd Continental Congress, Declaration of Independence passed. [The other webpage for this chapter covers the Declaration of Independence.] Subsequent: Benjamin Franklin to France as lobbyist [Benjamin Franklin’s role is clarified in the other webpage for this chapter. He manipulates the French intelligentsia’s belief in the Noble Savage.]	-	-
1776-07 +							¾			¾		Foreign experts such as: Marquis de Lafayette (unpaid) Thaddeus Kosciusko - engineer Baron von Steuben [Question: What does it tell you about the goals of this war that foreigners will come to fight? Certainly some come for the same reasons of pay and excitement that bring mercenaries to battle, but not all. The Marquis de Lafayette will be instrumental not just in the American Revolution, but in the French one as well.]	-	-
1776-08	X		X		X		NY: Long Island (Brooklyn Heights) Br. Gen. William Howe – 32,000 men (9,000 Hessians); fleet of 100s. Pat. 19,000 (untrained); no fleet. Gen. George Washington		H[5]	New York burned. Washington in retreat.		Br. victory, but a retreating army is not officially defeated [Question: What do the Br. have to accomplish in the war and what do the Pat. have to accomplish? What is the difference?] [Question: Notice the absence of a fleet. Scan down that 8^th column until you see a navy on the Pat. side. What does that tell you about the importance of the French alliance?]	X
1776-10			X		X		NY: White Plains		H[6]	Washington in retreat across NJ		2^nd Continental Congress flees Philadelphia for Baltimore (December)	X
1776-12	X				X		NJ: Trenton, Hessian garrison of 1400 Pat. Gen. George Washington	H[7]		Successful surprise attack the 26^th of December	Y	Provides an essential, although minor and temporary victory		X
1777-01			X		X		NJ: Princeton Br. Gen. Cornwallis Pat. Gen. George Washington	H		Successful surprise attack. Br. delayed and gave time for regrouping.	Y	Provides an essential, although minor and temporary victory.		X
1777-02							Br. plan: Gen. Howe up to Albany; Gen. John Burgoyne down from Canada			¾			-	-
1777-07 +			X		X		Br. plan – Howe did not follow it. PA: Brandywine Creek		H[8]	Instead Howe took Philadelphia (September).		2^nd Continental Congress flees to Lancaster and then York	X
1777-08 (1^st)		X	X		X		Br. plan - Burgoyne, one wing NY: Oriskany Leader: Mohawk Joseph Brant (alliance of 3 remaining Iroquois nations—Joseph and Mary Brant)		H[9]	Successful ambush of the Pat. and a near defeat of them, but Br. wing retreats.		Adds to the anti-Indian view of colonists Adds to volunteers joining Pat. to defend their region from violent Indian attack Blocks a wing of Burgoyne’s forces		X
1777-08 (2^nd)			X		X		Br. plan - Burgoyne - a force sent to get supplies followed by another force sent to reinforce them VT: Bennington	H[10]		Pat. volunteers + veterans defeat Br. in multiple engagements		Burgoyne withdraws to Saratoga Pat. volunteers (citizen soldiers) coming forward		X
1777-10 (1^st)			X		X		PA: Germantown Gen. George Washington		H[11]	Washington’s attack unsuccessful		Washington to Valley Forge for winter	-	-
1777-10 (2^nd)			X		X		Br. plan - Burgoyne NY: Saratoga but also on the Hudson with Br. fleet burning a city	H[12]		Pat. had entrenched position and had multiple engagements		Burgoyne surrenders 5,700.soldiers–a turning point in the war because it leads to French support (see 1777-12)		X
1777-11							¾			¾		2^nd Continental Congress votes for Articles of Confederation and then sends to states for ratification (not complete until 1781).	-	-
1777-12							¾			¾		News of the Pat. victory at Saratoga (see 1777-10) to France, to Britain Br. Lord North: offer of home rule (by April) French Count de Vergennes: offer of open support by treaty (February) (French will provide: navy, expeditionary force, money, munitions) Implication: international support for Pat. by the enemies of Britain (France, Spain, the Netherlands)	-	-
1778-04 +							Br. plan: enlist support of Loyalists (that they are sure exist) - with this implemented as a peace and war campaign			¾			-	-
1778-04 +							Br. plan – peace commission in the colonies			Fails in working with Congress.		Finally issues (in October) a public proclamation promising a war of destruction if Pat. don’t give up the French alliance and make peace. [Question: If you were inclined to favor the Br., how public would you be about your support of the Br.?]	-	-
1778-05							Br. plan: Howe replaced by Sir Henry Clinton PA: Br. evacuate			Clinton trying to stop Washington before the French arrive.			-	-
1778-06			X		X		NJ: Monmouth Court House Pat.: Gen. George Washington			Von Steuben’s training at Valley Forge pays off: Pat. beat back Br.		A draw, but the Br. go away during the night	X	X
1778-07 (1^st) +		X	X		X		NY: raids on white settlements (Mohawk Joseph Brant and Br.)			Included massacre of 40 people after their surrender.		Increased Pat. hostility and reduction of probability of surrender	X
1778-07 (2^nd)		X	X	X			IL: campaign against the Indians Pat.: George Rogers Clark			Term used for the Br. leader of Loyalists: the “Hair Buyer” [Question: What do this item and the one above tell you about how this campaign is becoming more brutal? FYI: “Hair buyer” = buyer of scalps.]		Campaign eventually leads to Indian desertions		X
1778-12			X				GA: Br. take Savannah			¾		Victories near the sea [Question: Compare the Burgoyne disaster–see 1777-08–and its insufficient supplies with the success of Br. campaigns near the sea–see also 1780-02. What does that tell you about the Br. strengths and vulnerabilities?]	X
1779-09		X	X	X	X		NY and PA: Pat. raids on the Indian settlements, including burning crops, orchards			Defeat of Brant and the Loyalists.		Some Iroquois flee North to Canada		X
1780-02							SC: Br. take Charleston port			¾		Victories near the sea
1780-05							NJ: no supplies at Washington’s camp			Continental currency worthless, soldiers receiving 1/8 of regular rations		Soldiers demanding back pay, but blocked by PA troops. [Question: What do these events and the vulnerability of the Continental currency tell you? Scan down to the similar events of 1781 and 1783. How vulnerable is the Pat. army?]	-	-
1780-07 +							South: Blocking of Br. consolidation			Guerrilla bands such as those of Francis Marion (“Swamp Fox”)	Y			?
1780-08			X		X		SC: Camden Br. Gen. Lord Cornwallis Pat.: Gen. Horation Gates			Among Br. commanders, Col. Banastre Tartleton of “Tarleton’s Quarter” (that is, giving no mercy when people surrender)		Some Loyalists join. Washington replaces Gates with Nathanael Greene	X
1780-09			X				¾			¾		Treason of Benedict Arnold comes out. Br. Maj. John Andre (in civilian clothes) caught with the papers. Arnold flees; made Br. brigadier general; gets money and more. [Question: What does his betrayal tell you about how he thinks the war is going?]
1780-10			X	X	X		NC/SC: Kings Mountain	H[13]		900 backwoods riflemen withstand bayonet charges and win.		[Question: What does this tell you about the changes and role of the citizen militia?]		X
1780-10							SC: Br. Cornwallis in winter quarters
1781-01							PA: mutiny by 1500 out of 2400 veteran soldiers			New recruits were getting currency not paper. 1/1779 – 8 to 1; 12/1779 -40 to 1		Put down militarily; 2 executions. (See also 1780-05 and 1783-03.)	-	-
1781-01			X		X		SC: Cowpens Br: Gen. Lord Cornwallis Pat.: Gen. Nathanael Greene	H[14]		Using inexperienced troops to retreat and set up a trap. Splitting forces and also additional guerrilla warfare with Cornwallis.	Y	Surprising victory		X
1781-02							¾			¾		Robert Morris made Superintendent of Finance	-	-
1781-03			X		X		NC: Guilford Courthouse	H[15]		Additional guerrilla warfare by Francis Marion. Tartleton (of Tarleton’s quarter–see 1780-08)- 350 killed after surrender.	Y	Blocks Cornwallis Southern campaign-needs reinforcement.	X
1781-03							¾			¾		States ratify Articles of Confederation	-	-
1781-05			X		X		VA: Cornwallis campaigns			Tarleton (see 1781-03) almost takes Jefferson (then governor of VA) and the legislature.		Cornwallis, under Clinton’s orders, retreats to Yorktown	-	-
1781-05 +						X	Major force of French navy, expeditionary force arrive			Washington leaves a deceptive force in the North and heads South.	Y		-	-
1781-10			X		X	X	NY: Yorktown			¾		Cornwallis surrenders 7,500		X
1782-02							Br. Lord North’s ministry fails						-	-
1782-02 +							Pat. negotiators: Benjamin Franklin, John Jay, John Adams			¾		Pat. negotiators are Benjamin Franklin, John Adams, and John Jay. Treaty (Preliminary peace in November)—separate negotiation with Britain (Spain wanted Gibraltar); Franklin keeps peace with Vergennes. The peace terms included: · Recognition of the independence of the U.S. · Territory from Canada to Florida and the Atlantic to the Mississippi (although the Br. did not rapidly leave the territories) · Recommendation to the States of restoration of Loyalists’ rights and property (although the American States did not)	-	-
1783-03							Pat. mutiny, pay			¾		Washington calms the mutiny	-	-
1783-04							NY: 7,000 Loyalists leave					Total: 100,000 leave for Europe or Canada because of the animosities (An estimated 1/5 to 1/3 of the colonists are Loyalists.)	-	-

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[1] Br. = 73 dead, 174 wounded, 26 missing; Pat. = 93 all categories

[2] Br. = 1050 casualties; Pat. = 100 dead, 267 wounded, 30 captured

[3] The blacks recruited to this and other service had a mixed fate. Some were sold into slavery; some were settled in Nova Scotia by the British; and some migrated to Sierra Leone (West Africa). (Source: Brendan McConville, essay in the Oxford Companion to American History, p. 668)

[6] In related engagements, Br. = 300, 458; Pat. = 200 dead, 2,800 captured

[7] Hessians = 30 dead, 918 captured; Pat. = 5 dead

[10] Br. initial force = leader dead, force dead or wounded; Br. reinforcements = lost 1/3 of force

[11] Br. = 534 dead or wounded; Pat.= 700 casualties, 400 captured

[12] In the engagements, Br. = 600; Pat. = 300. Br. = 600; Pat. = 150. Burgoyne surrenders 5,700 troups.

[13] Br. = 1,100 NY and SC Loyalists dead or captured; Pat. = 28 dead, 62 wounded

[14] Br. 1,000 force = 349dead, 600 captured; Pat. = 75 dead